Human sexuality Essay

She was barely eight years old when together with seven of her age mates ,she was handed over to a traditional circumciser who took them through the painful process of FGM. it has been many years since ,and she has accomplished so much in life, but the incident remains fresh in her mind. The old woman who took them through the process was going blind, she says, and three of the eight who underwent the procedure died due to excessive bleeding. One of them was her very close friend. Luckily for her, the bleeding was not too much and she had a savior at hand. Her father, who was a policeman, took her to a hospital in Garissa using a police land rover. This was the traumatizing experience that nominated Member of Parliament, Sophia Abdi Noor went through when her mother blessed her to undergo the rite of passage that would cleanse her and make her acceptable for marriage according to tradition. Never before in history of the august house had a member used her own life experience to move debate as Ms.  Sophia did when supporting the bill to outlaw female genital mutilation. Female genital mutilation is the term used for operations or removal of all or just part of the external parts of female genitilia. This practice has for a long time come under increasingly intense international scrutiny from the news media, feminist and human rights organizations. The main reasons for continuation of FGM are firstly, as a rite of passage from girlhood to womanhood; a circumcised woman is considered mature, obedient and aware of her role in the family and society. Secondly, FGM is perpetuated as a means of reducing sexual desire of girls and women, thereby curbing sexual activity before and ensuring fidelity within marriage. Although opposition to female ‘circumcision’ has been articulated throughout the twentieth century, starting with missionaries and colonial administrators, the current resurgence of indignation was ignited in part by activists at conferences honoring the United Nations Decade for women(1975-1985). (Shell-Duncan. B,Hernland-Y;pg 23) The practice of circumcising women has very deep roots that touch all aspects of the cultures that continue to inflict it upon their girls. However,it still remains to be a practice that violates the human rights of affected women in a moral and ethical sense because it generates psychological torture, low self-esteem, tampers with a woman’s sexuality and is a health hazard. Psychological torture The pain inflicted by F. G. M does not stop with the initial procedure, but often continues as an ongoing torture throughout a woman’s life. Intense pain and hemorrhage experienced during the procedure can lead to shock. A 1985 Kenyan study found that nearly 97% of the 269 women interviewed experienced intense pain during and after F. G.  M and more than 13% went into shock. According to WHO, It is self-evident that any form of surgical interference in the highly sensitive genital organs constitutes a serious threat to the woman, and that the painful operation is a source of major physical as well as psychological trauma. The extent and nature of the immediate and long-term mental disturbances will depend on the girl’s inner defences, the prevailing psychological environment, and a host of other factors. The family no doubt does its best to mitigate the painful effects of the operation; nonetheless, they necessarily undergo overwhelming experiences. Even before the operation, the threat of ‘cutting’ and fear provoking situation may disturb the mental state of the child to the degree that it causes worry, anxiety, sleeplessness, nightmares or panic. As anticipating precautions against these anxieties the family commonly uses various forms of traditional magi co-religious practice such as fumigation, or the wearing of amulets. On a religious perspective, the scripture prescribes that special efforts be made to care for those who are most vulnerable. (Deut 10:17-19,Ps 82:3,4; Ps24:11,12;Luke 1:52-54) Jesus taught that children should be loved and protected. Therefore,the genital mutilation of young girls violates the biblical mandate to safeguard children and protect them from harm and abuse Tampers with a woman’s sexuality. Sexual intercourse can only take place after opening the infibulation, through surgery or penetrative sexual intercourse. Consequently, intercourse is frequently painful during the first weeks after initiation. Although it is difficult to verify reports or women’s sexual experiences, physical complications from FGM often impede sexual enjoyment. FGM destroys much or all of the vulva nerve endings, delaying arousal or impairing orgasm. Lacerations loss of skin elasticity, or development of neuron (a tumor or mass growing from a nerve) can lead to painful intercourse. In a 1993 Kenyan study, 5% of women interviewed experienced painful intercourse while 9. 3% of them reported having difficult or impossible penetration, and that many of the married ones only accepted it only as a duty. Scripture celebrates the divinely ordained gift of sexual intimacy within marriage (Eccl9. 9;Prov 5:18,19). The practice of female genital mutilation should be renounced because it threatens the creator’s design for the experience of joyful sexuality by married couples. For married couples, the gift of sexual union may be further blessed by the birth of children (Prov 31:28). The fact that successful childbirth is threatened by FGM is additional grounds for opposition to this practice. Health hazard. In October 1994, as a response to the call to Global Action,UNICEF issued an executive directive declaring that FGM is a health hazard to children and violation of their human rights. FGM in any form should not be practiced by health professionals in any setting including hospitals or other health establishments. Unnecessary oddly mutilation cannot be condoned by health providers. FGM is harmful to the health of women and girls and violates their basic human rights and medicalization of the procedure does not eliminate this harm. On the contrary, it reinforces the continuation of the practice by seeming to legitimize it. Health practitioners should provide all necessary care and counseling for complications that may arise as a result. Group circumcision, where the same unsterilized instrument is used on several girls at a time, repeat cutting and stitching increases risk of HIV infection. The Bible presents the goodness of God’s creation, including the creation of human beings (Gen 1:31; Ps 139:13, 14). God is the source and sustainer of human life (Job 33:4; john 1:3, 4). He calls for preservation of human life and holds humanity accountable for its destruction(Gen 9:5,6;Ex20:13,Jer 7:3-34). The human body is the â€Å"the temple of the Holy Spirit,† and followers of God are urged to care for and preserve their bodies, including the Creator’s gift of sexuality, as a spiritual responsibility (1cor6:15-19). Because FGM is harmful to health, threatening to life, and injurious to sexual function, it is incompatible with the will of God. Having discussed the side effects that FGM pauses to victims, various communities have come up with measures to fight this procedure, an alternative rite of passage in the abandonment of FGM is used. It involves a four-step procedure Preparation Seminars for both parents and initiates are encouraged. The topics will include side effects of female circumcision, and get prepared to attend a residential seminar to elaborate on what the alternative procedure entails. Actual Circumcision In the alternative Rite of passage, actual circumcision should be stopped since we have learnt that it is not necessary to make a woman an adult nor mature. The side effects of F. C both short and long terms are to be avoided if actual circumcision is not performed. Parents can select a teacher and trainer, for their daughter who will accompany her to the residential centre for an alternative rite of passage seminar. Seclusion. For this the girls will attend a residential seminar for one week away from home. The initiate will be accompanied with their teacher and trainer. Women both circumcised and un circumcised from the community will facilitate during the seminar. Additional topics-AIDS, STI’s, simple hygiene and great women in the Bible, in community and in Kenya. Rites and rituals will be optional. Girls of circumcision age are between six and twelve years old. For the purpose of effective learning, the girls will be divided into two groups; girls between six and nine, ten and twelve. Graduation Graduation is expected to be brief and colourful. Songs, drama, plays and poems will be encouraged. Parents, community leaders, politicians and government officials will be invited to attend to witness the graduation of whole girls. Certificates of graduation will be awarded and prayers, blessings conducted. Exchange of gifts for newly graduated girls will be carried out and finally the graduates will be handed over to the community,chief,church elders and clan elders. Since it’s an annual event, committees are to b e established to plan for the following year.

Organization and Induction Essay

Introduction In this assignment we will analyse the importance of induction in making a good impression about the company on the employee. We will enumerate the various steps in induction at workplace and finally conclude our study. The process of induction is the basic requirement for an employee to learn the organizational culture and familiarize with the organization. The process of induction is important to bring new employees into an organisation. This process of induction helps the employee understand his rights within the organization and the expected terms of an employee in the working environment. The company’s impression is improved on an employee if the organization covers all the medical and legal requirements of the employee along with the his or her safety. An induction program primarily focuses on the enabling an employee to fit correctly within the organisation’s duties and responsibilities. He is made aware of his roles and what the company expects. A useful induction programme will be able to improve the productivity of the employees and in turn try and reduce the turnover of the employees within a short time. Induction has also shown to improve the process of socialization, confidence and commitment of an employee towards the organization. Induction at workplace The process in a workplace primarily targets at improving friendliness and increasing a feeling of acceptance. Introduce the organizational culture by explaining â€Å"how things really work around here† and the importance that is attached to issues such as punctuality, dress codes, work hours and codes of behaviour. Outline the organizational Vision and Mission: new appointees need to have a sense of the big picture in relation to the organization’s current focus and future directions and have some insight to the organizational achievements. Clarify job role and responsibilities by discussing the expectations of parties, explaining reporting relationships, delegations, levels of authority and decision making, and outlining how good performance will be assessed, measured and rewarded. Familiarize employees with conditions of employment, facilities and amenities, policies and procedures (such as OHS), whilst avoiding information overload by prioritising what needs to be done  and providing information in a staged approach. New employees are expected to remember a lot of new faces, names and facts about their new job, and to prevent an information overload, it’s important to use different mediums to communicate the information, including face to face exchanges, on-line tools, videos, self-directed work exercises and formal and informal meetings and seminars. Obtain feedback on the effectiveness of the induction process by encouraging feedback from inductees throughout the induction process, supporting continuous review and improvement to existing induction policies and procedures and ensuring that the objectives of the induction are met. Conclusion As our workforce grows and becomes more diversified, the quality and consistency of key messages at induction will become even more crucial; this is the key opportunity to engage new employees and contractors and demonstrate and reinforce desired culture and safe behaviors. Is a just in time, just enough approach to induction easier said than done? Maybe, but our experiences have shown that it can be achieved by completing a thorough Induction Needs Analysis; using skilled Instructional Designers to create the program and its resources, and finally ensure active site / organisational involvement in managing the quality of delivery and program content.

Technology and the mind Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Technology and the mind - Essay Example One gadget receiving the greatest use the world over is the mobile phone for its communicative importance. Psychologists have expressed concern on grooving excessive use and addiction to mobile phone in today’s society which comes with negative health ramifications. Some scientists have also opined this growing to technology aided by communication gadgets hinders our scientific abilities as people tend consume just what has been made available instead of thinking deeply and innovatively. in other words technology is making us more lazy in terms of thinking critically problematic use of some technologies such as the mobile phone is significantly interfering with quality of life negatively. The amount of time spent on the phone is not the real problem with technology but the need to stay connected. This could be the core reason as to the addiction being witnessed. The response by individuals when their phone is removed is another important cue. Most will show signs such as anxiety, depression and withdrawal if their access to technology is removed. studies in Japan on children who posses phones has shown they are less likely to befriend peers who are not savvy, while another in one in Britain shows that 36% of students in colleges are not able to survive with their phones. According to Sheffield quoted in (Birdwell, 2007) â€Å"The most shocking figure was that 7 percent said the use of mobile phones had caused them to lose a relationship or a job.† On the hand there those who oppose the argument that technology is detrimental to the mind. Their position is based on the fact that technology is being used by all scientists in their work, it continues to enhance life in every area. E-mail, PowerPoint presentations, the internet, mobile phones and other technologies they argue are part and parcel of any scientist’s life. They agree to the notion that information overload may cause

The role of using first language (L1) and translation in young Essay

The role of using first language (L1) and translation in young learners classes - Essay Example Majority of teachers, counting up to 72% of them opined that bilingual education should be started at the elementary school level. One of the opinions in relation with this research question reads â€Å"I think young learners are able to learn more than one language at the same time faster than adults, therefore teaching English should be started in the elementary school and even before†. On contrary, 27% of the respondents were of the opinion that Bilingual education should begin at the middle-school level rather than the elementary-school level. A statement in support of this opinion as made by one of the participant teacher reads â€Å"If the learners of the second language started learning it in very early age they will forget their first language (Arabic)†. The response from 81 % of the respondents suggested they were in support of English as the only language to be should be spoken in the class. One of the citable arguments made by one of the teachers in favor of this argument states; â€Å"Only English should be used in EFL classes for the sake of the students, nowadays English is becoming a very important language in all aspects of our lives like to find a good job, to communicate with others and even in the schools and universities everything is going to be in English†. 18% of the teachers were in opposition to the lone usage of English in classes. They pointed out several drawbacks on only using English in the classes. One of the teachers opines â€Å"â€Å"We don’t need to learn or speak English; we speak Arabic all the time (home, school, with friends and family) so learning English should not be our main concern†. As far as the opinion on the need of translation was concerned, 72% of the total sample population were not in favor of students being encouraged to translate back and forth from the TL to Native Language, and vice versa. One of the respondents in favor of this argument states â€Å"Translation

Dependant Pesonality Disorders Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Dependant Pesonality Disorders - Essay Example (DPD2006) DPD involves a pervasive and excessive need to be taken care of that leads to submissiveness, clinging, and fears of separation. Its primary diagnostic criteria include extreme difficulty making decisions without others' input, need for others to assume responsibility for most aspects of daily life, extreme difficulty disagreeing with others, inability to initiate projects due to lack of self-confidence, and going to excessive lengths to obtain the approval of others. An individual with DPD always seeks a relationship, in which he or she clings to this relationship in very dependent manner and goes to the utmost extent to keep both the ends meet. This disorder includes abnormally high levels of the neuroticism facets of anxiousness, self-consciousness, and vulnerability following dependent individuals desperately seeks another relationship as soon as one ends (i.e. dependent persons are high in extraversion). Excessively dependent behavior may be seen in persons who have developed debilitating mental and physical conditions, such as agoraphobia, schizophrenia, severe injuries, or dementia. However, a diagnosis of DPD requires the presence of the dependent traits since late childhood or adolescence. One can diagnose the presence of a personality disorder at any age during a person's lifetime, but if (for example) a DPD diagnosis is given to a person at the age of 75, this presumes that the dependent behavior was evident since the age of approximately 18 (i.e., predates the onset of a co morbid mental or physical disorder). Differences in personality due to differing cultural norms should not be confused with the presence of a personality disorder. Cultural groups differ greatly in the degree of importance attached to deferent behavior, politeness, and passivity. The diagnosis of DPD requires that the dependent behavior result in clinically significant functional impairment or distress. Etiology and Pathology Insecure interpersonal attachment is central to the etiology and pathology of DPD. Insecure attachment and helplessness may be generated through a parent-child relationship, perhaps by a clinging parent or a continued infantilization during a time in which individuation and separation normally occurs. However, the combination of an anxious and/or inhibited temperament with inconsistent or overprotective parenting may also generate or exacerbate dependent personality traits (Maddux, 2005, p. 219). Unable to generate feelings of security and confidence for themselves, dependent persons may rely on a parental figure or significant other for constant reassurance of their worth. Eventually, persons with DPD may come to believe that their self-worth is defined by their importance to another person. Five-Factor Model Reformulation DPD is characterized by maladaptively high levels of agreeableness and the neuroticism facets of anxiousness, self-consciousness, and vulnerability. Persons with DPD

Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Law - Essay Example Legal and ethical issues in Solyndra correlate with each other in the company’s daily functioning. To address the problem, they offer a significant framework for the practice of business and for the relationship of the company with the customers. A manufacturing business establishment is an organization in the secondary sector that processes various natural resources to produce a particular product. Several ethical issues come into play in such organizations, which are much more than in other businesses in diverse sectors. The main reason is that manufacturing involves consumptions of natural resources and labor that require numerous ethical decisions for directors and managers to make. There are several key issues to think about when looking at the ethical performance of manufacturers, especially for solar panel, which necessitates handling of toxics substance in manufacture and removal. They also need to consider the aspects of waste management and disposal. Besides, sustain ability of product (energy and carbon footprint payback time), employees’ rights in manufacture supply chains (child labor, too much overtime and overtime pay less than legal minimum, longer working hours, maternity leave, sick and marital leave, pregnancy, marital position and discrimination based on disability, minimum wage and social insurance.) etc are to be considered. The management will also have to take into account the company’s participation in any kind of controversial activities that may be prejudicial to the society where it operates. Ethical and Legal Issues in Solyndra: Since the year 2005, ethical and legal issues in Solyndra, a solar-panel manufacturing company, have been negatively affecting its overall functioning. In the recent times, business environment has become more competitive and challenging. Therefore, business firms must try to overcome the competition and other challenges to increase overall profitability. Solyndra, however, suffered certa in setbacks primarily due to the fact that their manufacturing process remained highly complex, requiring specialized equipment which were expensive. Thus, their production costs have escalated. Besides, the price of traditional solar panels slumped sharply, which entailed a steep fall in the demand for their products. All these negative trends culminated in heavy financial loss to the company, resulting in their bankruptcy. 1) Bankruptcy’ is the one of the main issues that Solyndra faces currently. This problem has both legal and ethical perspectives. The basic ethical problem in bankruptcy in the company is that insolvents have promised to disburse their debts but at the same time they cannot keep their promise at the given time. Solyndra has obtained a large amount of loan even though could not keep up with the falling solar expenses. However, the loan was urgently needed by the company for installing new solar technologies. Thus, they received a loan guarantee of $535 mil lion from US Energy Department for protection against bankruptcy and pleaded for an extension. Solyndra is the first renewable energy business establishment to receive a federal loan in the year 2009. They went bankrupt the previous year and laid off 1100

Critically evaluate the external role and influence of relevant Essay

Critically evaluate the external role and influence of relevant International Governmental Organisations in processes of state a - Essay Example Of course, the will and commitment of the people of these states was the main force behind this transformation, the important role of international organisations cannot be ignored in nation-building and state-building in the region. Since their independence, the Baltic States have joined the United Nations, the Council of Europe, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe and a number of other international institutions. However, their membership in NATO and the European Union (EU) has been instrumental in the nation-building process of the Baltics. In this study, we will analyse the influence and role of mainly EU and NATO in the state-building and nation building process in the Baltic countries. Historical context Located in the geographical centre of Europe, the Baltic States had been for centuries an arena of confrontation between East and West, as well as between North and East† (Van Ham, 1995, p.10) . From the end of the 18th century, after these countries we re merged into the Russian empire, all the three lands were subjected to cultural and political suppression. The Tsarist Russia left no stone unturned to culturally and politically assimilate the Baltics into mainstream Russia. These states regained independence after the World War I, but only to lose it again to Soviet Union in 1940. Soviet leader Joseph Stalin reoccupied the Baltic countries in 1940 under the pretext of Molotov-Ribbentrop pact which provided room for Soviet influence in the region. After invading the three countries, he ruthlessly suppressed the nationalist feelings in the region and, following the path of the Tsarist Russian, he arbitrarily tried to assimilate the Baltics into mainstream Russia. However, as soon as Stalin died, the people of Baltics had set an example of rebellion for the rest of the USSR to follow. When the rest of Soviet Union was in peace in 1988, the people of these three countries were resisting the Soviet rule. Thousands of youths formed a human chain stretching the entire length of the three republics on August 24, 1989, on the 50th anniversary of Soviet rule. They were not far away from their independence. They eventually regained sovereignty in 1991 with the fall of Soviet Union. Three fragile new states However, it was not the end of their struggle. They were three fragile states with looming threats from their once superpower neighbour Russia. Without any state structure and a closed economy inherited from Soviet Union, the leadership and people of these states were in a state of paranoia, fearing for losing their sovereignty again. They had to go through the process of nation- and state-building in order to sustain their independence. Lack of strategic depth, open borders and their proximity to Russia and â€Å"limited economic resources to devote to developing viable military forces, especially since they have inherited little from the Soviet Army and were subject to a Western arms embargo until 1993† (V an Ham, 1995, p.4), put them in a vulnerable position as far as their security and viability was concerned. Domestic and global dynamics and policy options After independence, the decision makers in the Baltic States had to choose between a wide

Sexuality and chronic illness Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Sexuality and chronic illness - Essay Example In people’s lives to define sexuality, the term gender is used. Gender is used to determine the sex of an individual being male or female. Gender is used to discuss the different identities, expectations and roles that the society associated with being male and female (McInnes, 2003). People in general view themselves in many ways as male or female. People use social, cultural and psychological characteristics when viewing their gender. Two terms describe behaviors associated with men and women; feminine and masculine. For most people, the sense of being male or female begins when one is young. Most people sense to belong to a certain gender according to their sexual body parts and their physical appearance. People develop certain behaviors and attitudes as per their societies and cultures. In these social and cultural environments individuals are expected to act, feel and think in a particular way according to their masculine or feminine gender. One cannot conceive the idea o f sex as being prior to that of gender since the two are a product of cultural, social and political factors. In the society today, people use different ways to view themselves as being male or female. Gender identification is one of the ways that people view themselves and mostly occurs when one is young. Children in their early years try to identify themselves with the same-sex parent. A boy identifies himself with the father and the girl identifies herself with the mother. People use language to view themselves as male or female. In English, words such as mankind and chairman are used to denote set positions for both men and women though they are biased to the male side. Other words include lady and gentleman used to identify duties for men and women. At times, people use mode of dressing as a way to view their gender. For mothers, they at times dress their children who are girls in pink colored clothes

Computational Phylogenetic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Computational Phylogenetic - Essay Example Using the resulting â€Å"neighbor.outtree† generated as your answer in Question 2, generate the corresponding dendrogram using the â€Å"drawgram† program found at the MOBYLE Portal under phylogeny/display. Keep all program parameters set to default except for the â€Å"Drawgram options† parameter; you will need to change this parameter to a file type you can visualize on your computer (e.g., Windows – BitMap). Copy/Paste the resulting image as your answer. Using the resulting â€Å"dnapars.outtree† generated as your answer in Question 4, generate the corresponding dendrogram using the â€Å"drawtree† program found at the MOBYLE Portal under phylogeny/display. Keep all program parameters set to default except for the â€Å"Drawtree Options† parameter; you will need to change this parameter to a file type you can visualize on your computer (e.g., Windows – BitMap). Copy/Paste the resulting image as your answer. Run the â€Å"fitch† program found at the MOBYLE Portal under phylogeny/distance. Keep all program parameters set to default except for the parameter you will need to change to run â€Å"Minimum Evolution† instead of â€Å"Fitch-Margoliash†. Copy/Paste the resulting â€Å"fitch.outtree† as your answer. Using the resulting â€Å"fitch.outtree† generated as your answer in Question 6, generate the corresponding dendrogram using the â€Å"drawtree† program found at the MOBYLE Portal under phylogeny/display. Keep all program parameters set to default except for the â€Å"Drawtree Options† parameter; you will need to change this parameter to a file type you can visualize on your computer (e.g., Windows – BitMap). Copy/Paste the resulting image as your

Problem Solution for TerraTech Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Problem Solution for TerraTech - Case Study Example The company is now at a point where they need to determine how they will move forward to meet not only the current, but future demands of the clients. In order to do this it will be important for the company to carefully implement a strategy to accomplish their goals. There is always the alternative to do nothing, but if TeraTech wishes to survive this is not an option. The current issues that have been identified are poor customer satisfaction reviews, slowing growth, and staffing concerns. Moving forward, the company will have to decide how to best address these issues. TeraTech is a major player in the CRM solutions arena for the pharmaceutical industry. However, after receiving feedback from their customer base they have found that their customers are overall unhappy with the level of support provided for their current CRM technology, nor are they satisfied with the results that the software is producing for them. It has been identified that the current technology lacks the analytical capabilities that their customers need to realize a return on their investment in the technology. TeraTech has the opportunity to develop a new technology that would better meet the needs of their clients and help them to obtain a competitive advantage. Proper execution of a new product development and launch is imperative to the success of the product (Kerin, 2006, ch. 10, pp. 15-20). It is evident that in order for TeraTech to remain competitive they will need to implement a new technology that will meet the needs of their customer base. There is a major issue facing the company at the present time in the area of staffing. Management feels that they do not have the necessary talent and skills available in order to "develop and support an analytical product" (UOP, 2008, Scenario). In fact, with the resources available at the current time they are not able keep up an acceptable level of customer satisfaction and stand to lose business. Since the human resource department is insisting that the company does not recruit any new talent within the next year, TerraTech has an obvious staffing issue that must be addressed. Maximizing current human resources capital will prove to be quite a challenge. Perhaps the most important issue facing TerraTech is the fact that their customers are not satisfied and that they stand to lose the customer base that they have worked so hard to acquire. As mentioned above the first issue is that the current technology is not meeting their needs, but in addition to this a good percentage of customers are reporting that they are not happy with the level of support and customer service that they have received from the company since they have began using the CRM system. TeraTech must address this issue and they have a good opportunity to improve the level of service and support they are providing their customers. Stakeholder Perspectives/Ethical Dilemmas Anytime that a company seeks to make changes or branch out into unknown territory, there will be doubt and conflict within the organization. A lot of this comes from the tendency of human nature to resist change coupled with the fear of failure. According to the UOP, Scenario One - TeraTech, research has revealed that most new products fail and this fact "increases anxiety amount the different groups who must

Adoption Of ICT In The Tourism And Hospitality Industry Essay Example for Free

Adoption Of ICT In The Tourism And Hospitality Industry Essay Abstract Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) have revolutionised the travel industry in the last decade. eTourism reflects the digitalisation of all processes and value chains in the tourism, travel, hospitality and catering industries. It emerges as a term describing the entire range of applications of ICTs on tourism and the implications for the tourism value chain. Major opportunities and challenges have emerged and need to be addressed by all industry players. However, the level of eTourism developments varies between regions, countries and continents. The tourism sector is experiencing an acceptance of ecommerce to the extend that the whole industry structure is changing .The web is used not only for information gathering but also for ordering services .A new type of user is emerging one who acts as his or her own travel agent and build a personalised travel package .This research focuses on evaluating the current status of Meikles Hotel Zimbabwe in order to study the adoption of ecommerce applications on the hospitality sector. 1. Introduction Mathieson and Wall (1982) created a good working definition of tourism as the temporary movement of people to destinations outside their normal places of work and residence, the activities undertaken during their stay in those destinations, and the facilities created to cater to their needs. The tourism industry requires a diverse range of information and lends itself well to the support offered by developing multimedia, communication technologies and information systems .The internet provides an extra ordinary connectivity and the ability to communicate efficiently and effectively directly with customers at a reasonable cost .Its potential to generate more revenue is not questionable but is acknowledged as something the tourism industry in developing countries needs. According to the World Tourism Organization 2002, Tourism in many developing and least developed countries is the most viable and sustainable economic development option, and in some countries, the main source of foreig n exchange earnings. Implications of the Internet and other growing interactive multimedia platforms for tourism promotion are far reaching and alter the structure of the industry. This research aimed to explore the impact of ICTs and the  Internet in particular for the future competitiveness of the tourism and hospitality industry. This paper explores the current state of eTourism development and examines the use of the Internet in the sector. The rapid development and commercialization of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) for the travel and tourism industry has prompted hotels and other enterprises in this sector to increasingly adopt these technologies. This is based on the expectation that the new ICT based technologies and processes would lead to an improvement in their operating efficiencies and customer service levels. Buhalis, D. (2003: 77). The ICT based products and processes help the hotels to enhance the operating efficiency, improve the service experience as well as provide a means to access markets on a global basis. Brussels, 2005. Says ‘The use of ICTs is a relevant opportunity for growing and strengthening a local tourism industry, and for the development of destinations economies overall. Specifically ICTs have the potential to increase destination incomes for financing economic and social development’. While ICTs were used in the hotel industry from the late seventies in the f orm of Computerized Reservation systems and Global distribution systems, it was only in the 90s that the ICTs began to make a difference in the hospitality sector. Nowadays the internet has turned into an informative channel providing both individuals and organisations with different types of information making them aware of new tourism and old travel opportunities and offers enabling them to compare the offers, have online purchases and provide feedback. It has also turned into a source for travel agencies and organisations to promote their services and products to their potential customers. As the internet is being used worldwide it was important for Meikles hotel to implement hence the creation of its web site www.meikles.com Meikles Hotel Meikles Hotel is situated in the heart of Harare and overlooks the historic landmark and colourful flower gardens of Africa Unity Square. According to Experience Zimbabwe, Meikles is consistently voted as one of the best hotels in Zimbabwe, Meikles Hotel is a proud member of The Leading Hotels of the World, a prestigious hospitality organisation which represents some of the worlds most acclaimed hotels, spas and resorts. Established in 1928, the organisation exists to meet the needs of discerning travellers and for a  hotel to be recognised by this body, it needs to exceed every expectation and achieve exacting standards of excellence. Executive chairman Mr Onias Makamba says ‘Meikles Hotel has won the prestigious Association of Zimbabwean Travel Agents (AZTA) award for Best City Hotel in Zimbabwe for an astonishing 15 consecutive years’. This award is voted on by AZTA members and is based on feedback given to travel agents by their many clients across the world. Probl em Definition There have been a lot of changes in the rapid growing world of technology. Changes in the technological world have made organizations to change the way they conduct their day to day business in order to provide satisfactory services delivery. Effective delivery of service is defined by Martin (2004) as providing products and services that bring utility to users and customers. E-tourism is offering significant benefits for organizations that integrate the technology into their organizational information systems. This versatile technology improves information quality and accessibility, increases operational efficiency (service delivery) and enhances effective management (Maamar, 2006). Despite these highly perceived benefits of e-tourism its adoption has been relatively slow in Zimbabwe. Currently, there are no studies which have been carried out in Zimbabwe to identify the benefits and challenges of adopting ICT in the tourism and hospitality industry. Hence it is the ideal time to ca rry out an investigation on the adoption of ICT in the tourism and hospitality industry. Objectives The key objective of this research has been to examine the Adoption of ICT in the tourism industry mainly looking at Meikles Hotel in Zimbabwe .In particular the research examines the level of ICT diffusion in tourism enterprises. Another objective is to Identify the factors affecting E-tourism in Zimbabwe The paper also assesses how eTourism concepts and techniques can contribute towards the improvement of the Zimbabwe tourism competitiveness. RESEARCH QUESTIONS I. At what rate is ICT being adopted in the tourism and hospitality industry in Zimbabwe? II. What factors are encouraging or discouraging the adoption of ICT in the tourism and hospitality industry of Zimbabwe. 2. Literature  review Literature review is a â€Å"systematic, explicit and reproducible method for identifying, evaluating and interpreting the existing body of recorded work produced by other scholars† (Khan, 2008, p.41). The literature review focuses on the impacts of ICTs on tourism and the eCommerce developments in Zimbabwe. It also includes a brief section on Tourism in Zimbabwe which provides the contextual environment that determines the requirements for eTourism in the country. 2.1 ICT Developments and eCommerce in Zimbabwe There are various factors that have affected the adoption of ecommerce in Zimbabwe, these include : Software development tools are still evolving .It is difficult to integrate Internet and e-commerce software with some existing (especially legacy) applications and databases .Special web servers are needed in addition to the network servers, which add to the cost of ecommerce. The Standard June 5, 2011 says the adoption of the multiple currency system in 2009 presented a strong opportunity for the growth of e-commerce in Zimbabwe. It said Zimbabwe now had a chance to catch up with the rest of the world if the financial and retail sectors took the lead. Internet accessibility is still expensive and or inconvenient .Powertel Communications, a government owned internet provider, is one of the 12 POTRAZ licensed Internet Access Providers in Zimbabwe. In June 2014 Powertel mobile broadband price were $50/month .The price of the modem $45.Every Zimbabwean cannot afford these prices. The Fin ancial Gazette 3 Oct 2013 states Despite the growth of the Information Communication Technology (ICT) sector in the country, which has seen internet penetration rising from five to 47 percent in the past five years, the cost of accessing the internet still remains high. The improved internet penetration is largely credited to the ICT Strategic Plan crafted by the then ministry of ICT under Nelson Chamisa. Customers’ attitudes towards online shopping remain skeptical, mainly because of worries about product quality, product delivery, and security and privacy issues (Ghazali et al., 2006; Scott Scott, 2008). People do not yet  sufficiently trust paperless, faceless transactions .Payment security and privacy concerns are one of the major non technological barriers that prevent consumers from completing transactions online Lack of trust in e-commerce and in unknown sellers hinders buying. Online fraud is also increasing. Some customers like to feel and touch products. They are afraid that if they purchase without actually touching the products they might not get exactly what they ordered. Also, customers are resistant to the change from shopping at a brick-and-mortar store to a virtual store. The lack of stand ­ards in technology and its applications eventually increases the cost of system integration for effective and efficient management in distribution, operation and communication worldwide. Large hospitality corporations have invested to transform their systems into a total netware system; however, small and medium-sized tourism enterprises (SMEs) struggle to integrate the systems due to a shortage of financial sources Factors Determining the Adoption of ICTs In Zimbabwean Hotels There are a number of factors that affect the adoption of ICT in hotels these will be discussed below. In the hotel industry, the geographic location of a hotel has a major impact on its operations and profitability. The geographical location of a hotel would greatly determine the profile of its visitors, the size of its market and the level of competition that it has to face. A hotel will therefore be more inclined to adopt ICTs if it expects the ICT based facilities to either provide greater competitive advantage or to blunt the advantage enjoyed by its competitors considering the characteristics of its customer profile, its market size and the intensity of competition that it has to face. Thus based on the profile of a hotel’s visitors, the size of the market, or the intensity of competition, hotels may differ in their levels of ICT adoption propensity. The market size, in terms of the number of tourists who visit the location, will also be a significant factor that affects ICT adoption , since hotels  in smaller underdeveloped destinations may need to use the internet and other ICT based technologies to a greater degree to reach out to the global population than hotels located in developed destinations. According to Bajaj and Nag (2005) a range of advanced ICT systems such as Decision Support System (DSS) can be applied to gain substantial benefits on practical levels not only by large organisations, but also by small and medium-sized business organisations as well. Bajaj and Nag (2005) argue that DSS integration by small and medium-sized organisations can assist management by generating a set of alternative solution options to management problems of various levels complexities The competition level among the hotels in a location, can also influence the adoption of ICTs. The general occupancy rate in the location is an indicator of the competitive intensity among the hotels in a location. High levels of occupancy rate at a location imply that the competition is low, and the hotels can expect to get their rooms filled with relative ease while low levels of occupancy point towards higher levels of competition to attract customers between the hotels in the location. High levels of competition may prompt the hotels to aggressively use ICT based technologies both for attracting customers as well as to increase the efficiency of its operations. The size of the hotel has an important effect on ICT adoption. Effective adoption of several ICT technologies requires a substantial investment of resources. Lack of resources may affect the inclination of small hotels to adopt costly ICTs and therefore large hotels can be expected to be more inclined to ICTs. Further the risky nature of investing in new technologies may prompt small hotels to wait till the technology has stabilized before investing in it. Another aspect of the hotel size that can influence adoption of ICTs is the inclination to change within the organization. Large hotels have been found to be more resistant to change than small firms. This fact tends to suggest that large hotels are less inclined to adopt ICTs than small hotels as long as the investment required is not a consideration. The scope of activities that the hotel is engaged in can also influence adoption of ICTs. Since ICTs enable an effective integration of activities of an organization, hotels with varied lines of activities would find more use in the adoption of ICTs than hotels with a relatively lesser span of activities. 2.2 Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in the Tourism sector The internet has become a key application in the tourism industry. Tourism providers have been using the internet to communicate, distribute and market their products to potential customers worldwide in a cost- and time-efficient way. In fact, the individual company website had become the most important platform for e-commerce, followed by electronic markets. The main focus of e-business processes in the tourism industry has been on customer facing activities and services, i.e. primarily e-marketing and e-sales. Online booking and reservation services were widely accepted among consumers and business travell ers already in 2005. Similarly, online purchasing had become a relatively well-used application in the tourism sector. Parsons and Oja (2013) mention online reservations systems as one of the greatest impacts of ICT on tourism and hospitality sector. Tourism has closely been connected to progress of ICTs for over 30 years. The establishments of the Computer Reservation Systems (CRSs) in the 1970s, Global Distribution Systems (GDSs) in the late 1980s and the Internet in the late 1990s have transformed operational and strate ­gic practices dramatically in tourism .The tourism indus ­try at first focused on utilizing computerized systems (e.g., CRS, GDS) to increase efficiency in processing of internal information and managing distribution. Nowadays, the Internet and ICTs are relevant on all operative, structural, strategic and marketing levels to facilitate global interaction among suppliers, intermediaries and consumers around the world. In this section, we will provide the concepts and definitions of the key terms related to the Internet and ICTs. 2.2.1 Electronic tourism (e-tourism) It is the application of ICTs on the tourism industry (Buhalis, 2003). Buhalis (2003) suggests that e-tourism reflects the digitisation of all processes and value chains in the tourism, travel, hospitality and catering industries. At the tactical level, it includes e-com ­merce and applies ICTs for maximising the efficiency and effectiveness of the tourism  organi ­sation. At the strategic level, e-tourism revolutionises all business processes, the entire value chain as well as the strategic relationships of tourism organisations with all their stakeholders. E-tourism determines the competitiveness of the organisation by taking advantage of intranets for reorganising internal processes, extranets for developing transactions with trusted partners and the Internet for interacting with all its stakeholders and customers. The e-tourism concept includes all business functions (i.e., e-commerce, e-marketing, e-finance and e-accounting, eHRM, e-procurement, e-production) as well as e-strategy, e-planning and e-management for all sectors of the tourism industry, including tourism, travel, transport, leisure, hospitality, principals, intermediaries and public sector organisations. Hence, e-tourism bundles together three distinctive disciplines: business management, information systems and management, and tourism. II.2.2 Computer reservation system (CRS) The 1989 CRS Regulation51 defined a computerized reservation system as a system for reserving and booking seats on commercial flights electronically, as well as storage and retrieval of itineraries. Several airlines own and market such systems, which are used by travel agents. A few include: Sabre (produced by American Airlines), Amadeus, and Worldspan. It is a database which enables a tourism organisation to manage its inventory and make it accessible to its partners. Principals utilise CRSs to manage their inventory and distribute their capacity as well as to manage the drastic expansion of global tourism. CRSs often charge competitive commission rates while enabling flexible pricing and capacity alterations, to adjust supply to demand fluctuations. Airlines pioneered this technology, although hotel chains and tour operators followed by developing centralised reservation systems. CRSs can be characterised as the â€Å"circulation system† of the tourism product. II.2.3 Global distribution systems (GDSs) The business dictionary defines a global distribution system as a worldwide computerized reservation network used as a single point of access for reserving airline seats, hotel rooms, rental cars, and other travel related  items by travel agents, online reservation sites, and large corporations. The premier global distribution systems are Amadeus, Galileo, Sabre, and Worldspan. They are owned and operated as joint ventures by major airlines, car rental companies, and hotel groups. Also called automated reservation system (ARS) or computerized reservation system (CRS).Since the mid 1980s, airline CRSs developed into GDSs by gradually expanding their geographical coverage as well as by integrating both horizontally, with other airline systems, and vertically by incorporating the entire range of principals, such as accommodation, car rentals, train and ferry ticketing, entertainment and other provisions. In the early 1990s, GDSs emerged as the major driver of ICTs, as well as the back bone of the tourism industry and the single most important facilitator of ICTs globalisation (Sheldon, 1993). In essence, GDSs matured from their original development as airline CRSs to travel supermar ­kets. Since the late 1990s GDSs have emerged as business in their own right, specialising in travel distribution. 2.2.4 Intermediaries Intermediaries (brokers) play an important role in commerce by providing value-added activities and services to buyers and sellers. The most well-known intermediaries in the physical world are wholesalers and retailers. Traditionally, intermediaries of the travel industry have been outbound and inbound travel agencies and tour operators. However, the Internet restructured the entire touristic value chain, forcing the existing intermediaries to take up the new medium and to develop corresponding business models. 2.2.5 e-Travel agencies ICTs are irreplaceable tools for travel agencies as they provide information and reservation facilities and support the intermediation between consumers and principals. Andreas Papatheodorou – (2006) Travel agencies operate various reservation systems, which mainly enable them to check availability and make reservations for tourism products. Until recently GDSs have been critical for business travel agencies to access information and make reservations on scheduled airlines, hotel chains, car rentals and a variety of ancillary services. GDSs help construct complicated itineraries, while  they provide up-to-date schedules, prices and availability information, as well as an effective reservation method. In addition, they offered internal management modules integrating the â€Å"back office† (accounting, commission monitor, personnel) and â€Å"front office† (customers’ history, itinerary construction, ticketing and communication with suppliers). Multiple tr avel agencies in particular experience more benefits by achieving better coordination and control between their remote branches and headquarters. Transactions can provide invaluable data for financial and operational control as well as for marketing research, which can analyze the market fluc ­tuations and improve tactical decisions Hotels use ICTs in order to improve their operations, manage their inventory and maximise their profitability. Their systems facilitate both in-house management and distribution through electronic media. ‘Property management systems (PMSs)’ coordinate front office, sales, planning and operational functions by administrating reservations and managing the hotel inventory. Moreover, PMSs integrate the â€Å"back† and â€Å"front† of the house management and improve general administration functions such as accounting and finance; marketing research and planning; forecasting and yield management; payroll and personnel; and purchasing. Understandably, hotel chains gain more benefits from PMSs, as they can introduce a unified system for planning, budgeting and controlling and coordinating their properties centrally. Hotels also utilise ICTs and the Internet extensively for their distribution and marketing func ­tions. Global presence is essential in order to enable both individual customers and the travel trade to access accurate information on availability and to provide easy, efficient, inexpensive and reliable ways of making and confirming reservations. Although Central Reservation Offices (CROs) introduced central reservations in the 1970s, it was not until the expansion of airline CRSs and the recent ICT developments that forced hotels to develop hotel CRSs in order to expand their distribution, improve efficiency, facilitate control, empower yield management, reduce labour costs and enable rapid response time to both customers and management re ­quests. Following the development of hotel CRSs by most chains, the issue of interconnectivity with other CRSs and the Internet emerged.This reduces both set-up and reservation costs, whilst facilitates res ­ervations through several distribution channels 2.3 Tourism in Zimbabwe In the past, tourism contributed significantly to the GDP of Zimbabwe, and created many employment and business opportunities for locals in the 1990s. But it has faced a great decline since 2000. A number of Zimbabwean tourist attractions are marketed online by South African companies and they have created an impression to some international tourists that they are located in South Africa. E-tourism has always seemed like a no-brainer for Zimbabwe, as money can be paid direct to hotels and suppliers. But obstacles like the lack of access to communication in remote areas, uncertain electricity availability, high cost of bandwidth, the lack of integrated, real-time reservation systems and local online payment gateways have thus far stymied progress. However, with the arrival of voice and data-oriented telecommunications in some remote tourist areas, there is more access to information via websites by foreign tourists looking for a good holiday resort. In other parts of Africa, arrival o f cheaper bandwidth has lessened the barriers to communication and the world’s Online Travel Agencies like Expedia are showing a real interest in the continent. Ten years ago no-one was talking about online tourism. The tourism trade tended to focus on going to big trade events like World Tourism Markets, with brochures and doing support advertising in key markets. The travel agents tended to suggest where people went and to some extent picked the destinations. As a result, a great deal of the revenues went to large, international hotel chains and not much of the money was retained locally. According to The Zimbabwean (22 June 2011) 56% of travel globally is booked online and the rise of the Online Travel Agents has been unstoppable. These OTAs, as they are known in the trade, include Expedia, Travelocity, Lastminute.com and Bookings.com who have significant market share in Africa. Expedia has actually opened an office to focus on Africa. It goes on to say In 2005, less than 2% of tourism revenues in Africa came from online booking. In 2010, buoyed by the World Cup, that percentage rose to 5% and looks set to go to somewhere between 15-20% by 2016. The World Cup may have been a one-off boost but it accelerated the growth of online tourism in South Africa. 50% of Americans read an online review before booking internationally and that’s usually  either Trip Advisor or Facebook. (Trip Advisor is now owned by Expedia). Most internatio nal travellers have credit cards and increasingly expect to be able to book online for anything from the smallest travel lodge to the largest hotel chain. So what are the barriers? The missing piece was e-commerce. There used to be no route for doing online transactions in other countries in Africa including Zimbabwe. Online distribution by the OTAs requires a reservation system that offers real-time availability. OTAs won’t do business with you unless you have that. In Zimbabwe there are few tourist resorts offering e-commerce reservation and booking services. Shearwater Adventures in Victoria Falls offer online booking and payment services, which have attracted a large number of tourists over the years. The second missing piece was the ability and tools to do online marketing. The companies needed marketing skills, especially with social media. Today’s tourist wants to hear from other travellers (through Facebook and Trip Advisor) and are not that interested in what the hotel has to say. For example, hotel chains Africa Sun and Cresta Hotels have invested in websites and Facebook groups where reviews are easily accessible to prospective tourists. Now that the data oriented communication and cheaper bandwidth is slowly becoming available throughout the country, telcos and ISPs need to focus specifically on those industry sectors that are most likely to make the online transition fastest. It must be possible in the near future for a herita ge site in Binga to be marketed online to the world and attract visitors. 3. Research Methodology To fulfil the objectives of this research a number of methods were used. Both primary and secondary data were therefore essential. Given the dynamic nature of the subject area, multiple primary research approaches were adopted, including both qualitative and quantitative methods (Phillip, 1998). Bryman (1998) explains that the two methods are complementary rather than competing, especially for exploratory research. The researcher made use of the internet and some library books to carry out the research and establish the solutions to the research objectives .First a qualitative approach was adopted in order to enable the appreciation of all aspects of the subject and to develop a set of the most critical variables  to be included afterwards into a questionnaire. The main objective was to objectively establish the level of eCommerce and the on-line representation of Zimbabwean tourism. The second stage involved semi-structured interviews aimed to elicit critical issues and to explore the key factors that determine the development of eTourism in Zimbabwe. In-depth interviews are considered as the most appropriate method to obtain information about perceptions, attitudes and beliefs. Judgmental sampling was employed and interviewees were selected as pioneers in eTourism in Zimbabwe, as determined by their online presence assessed in the previous phase of the research. Owners and marketing managers of organisations that run innovative web sites, as demonstrated by the methods used to interact with their clientele, were targeted and an interview was requested. The sample was chosen to include interviewees who would be informed, reflecting their particular experience and outlook on the research area. Twenty five telephone contacts were made and 28 interviews were finally conducted, which resulted in a 51% response rate .The reasearcher also made use of the questionnaires. The questionnaires designed by the researcher had both open ended questions thus allowing a respondent to fully express the answer and closed questions which only provided simple choice of answer such as yes or no. Questionnaires were used by the researcher because they saved time and they were an inexpensive way of surveying a cross section of people. Questionnaires allowed the researcher to guide the respondent along the lines regarding the topic under study and responses obtained from closed ended questions are easy to analyze. Questionnaires allowed the respondents to give freely the confidential information since the respondents were not required to disclose their identity. The researcher favoured the use of questionnaires because the analysis of data from close-ended question was easy. However data collection through the use of questionnaires required a significant commitment, expertise, time and material resources. The researcher also noted that questionnaires were highly inflexible as they gave no room to rephrase questions, furthermore, some questions remained unanswered and it affected the research findings. The researcher used simple wording in the questionnaires so that the respondents would not fail to understand the questions, that is, the researcher used simple wording to elaborate the meanings of what was being asked and required. The researcher also used face to face interviews. The researcher employed structured interviews to obtain detailed and specific information from the Minister of Tourism and Hospitality Mr Mzembi. The questions presented to the Minister sought to determine the factors affecting adoption of ICTs in Zimbabwean hotel and also how far Zimbabwean hotels are in terms of adoption of ICTs. The interview also sought to discover challenges to implementing ICTs and compliance at different hotels. The interview process proved time consuming and required persistence since the honourable Minister was a busy person and he was not easily available. The actual interview session had a length of 15 minutes due to the Minister’s busy schedule. To avoid inconveniences, an appointment via e-mail and telephone call prior to interviewing visit was made. Goodman (2003) states that certain biases exist due to the tendency by the interviewer to ask wrong questions and be supplied with answers he expects to get. The researcher eliminated such errors by avoiding leading questions and taking a listener approach instead of providing suggestions. Probing was only applied as a means of seeking clarifications. This technique was used because interviews are highly flexible and the researcher was able to rephrase the questions to make the respondent understand better. Dennis (2003), states that an interview is whereby the researcher and the respondents discuss verbally with each other either face to face, over the phone or over the internet. Interviews allow probing on open ended questions, clarifications on ambiguous questions and sequencing of questions is easily changed. However, the researcher noted that interviews were costly to run in terms of money and they are time consuming because the interviewee was a busy person hence the need of an appointment and the need of a telephone call reminding the interviewee about the appointment before the  time. The researcher also noted that the interview failed to give anonymity to the respondent, hence, there was a greater chance of being given biased information. RESULTS Eight hotels participated in the survey Meikles hotel, Holiday inn (Bulawayo), Victoria falls, Regency Fairmile, Kadoma hotel, Midlands hotel. At the outset the author quotes from a number of previous reports, which indicate that ICT has not been implemented effectively in the hospitality industry Evidence from the literature review has shown that there are a number of factors, which affect technology adoption. These factors include organisational readiness, external pressure, internal expertise, support of owner or manager, user participation, efficient and effective use of any external expertise. The barriers which were uncovered by the research: IT management training, dependency on outside experts and size and scale of enterprise are all directly related to the ‘other’ factors which influence ICT adoption. The level of significance of these barriers varies between the tourism sub-sectors surveyed. This study has added new knowledge in terms of the significance of a n umber of further barriers to ICT adoption. They include peripheral or rural location, security concerns, cost issues, lack of capital, and personal background of the owner manager. A closer analysis of findings has revealed that although technology is available, some of it is obsolete or not necessarily functional. Hotels possessed various outdated versions of software packages which did not seem to serve them well. . The mode of Internet bookings is an important determinant of their success. A lot of Internet booking systems generates a booking in email format rather than integrating into the hotel’s reservation system online. This obviously limits the usefulness of these systems. DISCUSSION The adoption of ICTs at Meikles Hotel is proving to be growing fast; this was noted by the stakeholder preparedness to harness it. Meikles hotel being a  five star hotel recognised internationally, this pushes them to move along with technological changes. Meikles hotel is interested in improving in their service provision through the use of e-commerce, and the results of this study show that this is being done at a fast pace. The top management at Meikles hotel are quite literate hence the adoption of ICT is faster compared to other hotels .The C.E.O is a holder of an honours degree in Computer science .Although the use of ICTs has not yet revolutionalised Meikles Hotel’s service delivery; it has changed how some services such as bookings are being done. Meikles hotel has a website developed and maintained by an inhouse programmer .Their website is user friendly and they have all the information that one needs about the hotel. Meikles hotel started offering wireless network services to guest in 2006.They use Fidelio management system which integrates all the information from the reservations, banqueting, finance departments and the restaurants. They use point of sale systems. CONCLUSION It can be noted that the adoption of ICTs at Meikles Hotel is proving to be growing fast and it has been done to a very large extent. Although the use of ICTs has not yet revolutionalised Meikles Hotel’s service delivery; it has changed how some services such as bookings are being done. References Buhalis, D (1998), â€Å"Strategic Use of Information Technologies in the Tourism Industry†, Tourism Management, Vol.19, pp.409-421. Connolly D. J and Olsen M. D(2000) â€Å"An Environmental Assessment of How Technology is reshaping the Hospitality Sector†, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol.3 (1), pp.73 to93. Cooper, C., Fletcher, J., Gilbert, D and Wanhill, S (1998) Tourism Principles and Practice, Pearson, Essex. Hoontrakul and Sahadev (2005*) â€Å"Determinants of E-commerce Usage in the Hotel Buhalis, D. (1997) Information technologies as a strategic tool for economic, cultural and environmental benefits enhancement of tourism at destination regions. Progress in Tourism and Hospitality Research, 3 (1), 71-93. Buhalis, D. (2003). eTourism: Information Technology for Strategic Tourism Management. London, UK: Pearson (Financial Times/Prentice Hall). Morrison, A., Taylor, S., Morrison, A., and Morrison, A. (1999) Marketing small hotels on the world web 2 (2), 97–113. O’Connor, P. (2000) Using Computers in Hospitality, 2nd edition. London: Cassell. Peacock, M. (1995) Information Technology in Hospitality. London: Cassell. O’Connor, P. and Frew, A. (2000) Evaluating electronic channels of distribution in the hotel sector: a Delphi study. Information Technology and Tourism, 3 (3/4), 177–193. O’Connor, P. and Horan, P. (1999) An analysis of web reservations facilities in the top 50 international hotel chains. International Journal of Hospitality Information Technology, 1 (1), 77–87.

Water Scarcity in Singapore: An Overview

Water Scarcity in Singapore: An Overview Abstract Singapore is a no more farmland country so that mean cant save more water. First I will write about Singapore fresh water information, second I will write about the government solution for the water scarcity issue, after that I will discuss the which solution is good for reduce fresh water scarcity and write some of my opinion for solve this issue. In the last I will conclusion the answer and give some suggest. When you want to know the detail information, in the last page I will give some source web site. Introduction Singapore is a famous poor water country and it most water come from another country provid. This report I will talk about Singapore how to reduce fresh water scarcity. Well we know the fresh water is very important to biome because the body have high per cent work from the water and it can help you eating, poop and transport energy. From the research the body have seventy per cent make for the water and when miss fifteen per cent it will meet died danger, so for the research the water is very important for our life. In global have fresh water scarcity problem, some scientist research some solution to reduce this trouble for example in seawater join some special energy can make it become fresh water. We know technology improve our life, most country have water recycle system. I think in the future each house have own small water recycle system. Methodology Before the researchà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã…’I find the Singapore water come from the nearly country and rain. Although precipition is high than another country but it no more land so it is poor water country. From the internet I find the Singapore how to collect the rain and the water used for. I think the chemistry system is very important for reduce fresh water scarcity because in Singapore is very careful for water. In my opinion this information is very important because it provide me more detail and it is good background befor the article. Findings Singapore is an island and urban city state and not hence so it have high per cent water on Malaysia supply. For the terrain reason, the Singapore cant save more water although it rain high than another country. In early because technology grow up quick and government not very care about industry, so most industry have most pollution and local person use groundwater so in after this country meet drink problem. In beginning the government to put forward buy the water for Malaysia and recycle pollution water. Then it carry out most plan desalt seawater to drink water, develop Newater plan, this plan objective is bring waste water that better than public water. I think they best plan is build impoundments and reservoirs, it can college most rain water and reduce water loss so in Singapore have most this building and most fresh water is come from here. The government dont want fresh water go to sea so they build barrage separate the sea and reservoir, when reservoir cant save more rain w ater it can help it ejectment the more water and it can save the low lying area. In my opinion the government can calculated each family use how much water, when it used more can suggest when they not hear can require pay more money and they also can reward use water less family, it can make everybody save the water and government donate little money to reward save water very well company. Discussion From the finding, we can see the Singapore have big water problem and they also take more measure to reduce fresh water scarcit. So I think my hypothesis is true, my hypothesi is in the future, each house have small water recycle sickle. from the technology grow up quick and the global fresh water scarcity issue to become more serious, we must have save water mentality and now most family have water purifier, it erasure people want to drink health and clean fresh water. In the future, the water recycle sickle have good change, it become not expensive and big, the government will subsidy it. All in all the Singapore do most action is want to solve fresh water scarcity issue. I think solve this issue is not only government work because we cant leave the water, and the water useful for our, so we must have save water mentalit. Well actually the government most action is want to reminds people have save water mind. We know in global have most country have fresh water scarcity issue and t he population become more and more, human most careful about fresh water issue, so I think most country should study Singapore method. Conclusion All in all the government proposed is want to reduce fresh water scarcity and they also want to reminds people to save water. Reference https://www.ukessays.com/essays/environmental-sciences/the-issues-of-fresh-water-in-singapore-environmental-sciences-essay.php

The Fetch Execute Cycle Computer Science Essay

The Fetch Execute Cycle Computer Science Essay Within this report about Computer Hardware, the report will cover the main concepts of computer hardware. Within this report there will be information about the main concepts of a computer system also. These main concepts will include Processors, Memory (Primary and Secondary), Input and output devices under the user types and networking, and support elements that will help the overall performance of a computer. Processors are parts of the computer that heart and brain of every computer, as it allows the processing of data in the computer system as well as the allowing instructions to be stored onto memory. The processor communicates with all the components of the computer. It mostly helps with the hardware, memory, and RAM of the computer or laptop CPU The CPU or central Processing unit is the most important and without the CPU the system would not be about to process anything. The Primary usage of the CPU is when instructions for the computer are created. Instructions are taken to decode a number of data types from programs. The CPU has to implement 4 basic functions during the fetch execute cycle; these are Fetch, Decode, Execute and Store (Hubapges, 2012). Fetch-execute cycle The Fetch-execute cycle is the sequence that the CPU gets an instruction from a certain program memory, decodes the incoming message and carries out that certain request. (Rob Williams, (2006) p52-54). Each of the instructions has an address, and the processor takes the address from something called the program counter. The program counter is in charge for tracking what instructions the CPU should execute. In basic teams instructions from memory being tracked (Hubpages (2012). The Following are the stages from inside a Fetch-execute Cycle Decode Once the CPU fetches the instructions, decodes the instruction, and then strips it down so that it can be easily executed (Complete PC Pedia. 2010). However some CPUs understand different types of instructions. For Example Assembly codes must be decoded into binary instructions. (Hubpages, 2012). Execution -After the decoding has been executed, memory is needed for data to be performed. For example a command to print is given when the first instruction has reached the CPU. Store after the execution, the CPU writes the results onto the main memory or on a register. The CPU must then give some feedback after execution. Then output data is written to the memory.Made in a presentation owned by De Montfort University, copyright them. To the right is a diagram that shows the basic stages of the fetch-execute cycle Shane Preece. (2008) Registers Whenever the processors execute instructions, data is temporarily stored in local memory locations of 8-64 bits called registers. The type processor the machine owns depends on the overall number of registers which can vary from ten to many hundreds and even thousands. There are many types of registers but the main ones are listed below. Accumulator register which stores arithmetic operations, as well as logical one; Status register holds system status indicators such as overflow; Instruction register contains the current instruction being processed; Ordinal counter contains addresses of the next instruction; (Kioskea.net. (N/A)) Examples of other Processors Microprocessor: A microprocessor is a circuit that has been integrated on a tiny silicon chip that contains millions of tiny switches on/out, known as transistors. These are laid along microscopic lines that store or manipulate data. These circuits copy data in patterns, and these patterns that can be programmed by software to help the machine do many useful tasks. (Belarus network. (2009).) Graphics processing unit (GPU) The Graphics Processing Unit is somewhat like the CPU (Central Processing Unit). GPU is a single-chip processor. While the CPU acts like the brain of the system, the GPU is primarily used for the computing 3D functions. For example lighting effects, object transformations, and 3D motion. (TechTerms.com. (2012)) Memory Memory is split into two parts. Primary and Secondary Primary memory is one of the most important parts of a computer. The processors inside the computer stores and retrieves information from the memory and is accessed by the CPU in a random order making RAM or random access memory. So any location of this memory can be accessed by the CPU to store or read. Random Access Memory, or RAM, is the most common under the major types of Semiconductor memory. RAM has the ability to both read data from memory and also is able to write new data into memory really easy and incredibly fast. Both reading and writing is done via electrical signals. However RAM is classed a volatile. This is when the memory is deleted when there is no power resulting in the loss of data. Leading to RAM used only as temporary storage. RAM also has two different types being DRAM and SRAM. (William Stallings (2006). 148-149.) DRAM or Dynamic memory is made with cells that hold data as charge on capacitors. The showing of charge in is the binary code of 1 or 0 when present or absent. DRAM is used in main memory. (William Stallings (2006). 148-149.) SRAM or static random access memory is made up of 1000s of flip-flop circuits. While SRAM is the much fastest between the two, it is the most expensive of read-write memory. The SRAM is the fastest on-chip cache memory. Also compared to DRAM, it is low power consuming and is brilliant for battery-powered portable machines. SRAM is used in cache memory. (Rob Williams (2006). p121.) ROM Read only memory contains patterns of data that cannot be edited or changed. ROM is classed as non-volatile, meaning no power supply is needed in order to maintain the bit values in the memory. ROM is what it is, read only, cannot be changed or rewritten. One of the best things about ROM is that all the data or program is always located in the main memory and it will never be needed to be loaded into some form of secondary storage device. (William Stallings (2006). 148-149.) Cache Memory Cache Memory lies between main memory and CPU. The Cache memory is random access memory that the computers microprocessor can access more quickly than its RAM. When the microprocessor processes data, firstly it takes a look in the  cache  memory and if it finds the data there. (Kioskea.net. (N/A)). Cache memory is local memory that causes waiting times for information stored in the RAM (Random Access Memory). This overall effects the speed performance of the computers main memory making it slower than that of the processor, but at the same time are certain types of memory is faster, but has greatly increased costs. Cache memory is sometimes put into levels of closeness or accessibility to the microprocessor. An example of a cache level is L1 cache; this is on the same chip as the microprocessor, or L2 is usually a separate static RAM (SRAM) chip. The main RAM is usually a dynamic RAM (DRAM) chip. (SearchStorage (2000)). Cache also reduces the latency time of memory when transferring information. When the processor is in operation, L1 cache can interface with L2 controllers to transfer information Also the L2 cache interfaces with the RAM (level three caches) to allow transfers. (Kioskea.net. (N/A)). Virtual Memory Virtual memory today is now very common, as virtual memory can be located in all types computers and operating systems. Virtual memory can even be found in the smallest microprocessor to the largest supercomputer. However Virtual Memory is not real, physical memory, as it is a type of storage space so large that programmers do not need to edit the programs or documents in way shape or form. Whenever the content of a program is loaded the amount of a local memory is changed. (Peter J.Denning. (1996). p213-216.) Secondary memory Secondary is the slowest and cheapest form of memory that money can buy. It stores the data permanently unless it is erased however itt cannot be processed directly by the CPU so it must be manually copied from primary storage. Secondary Memory can include types such as magnetic disks, optical disks and sometimes magnetic tapes. WikiAnswers. (2012). Magnetic disks Magnetic disks are data that is encoded on disks. This enables the user the ability to store information on a magnetic disk as many times as you want as well as erase it. Examples are Hard Drives and Floppy Disks First is the floppy disk : One of the first types of secondary memory, floppy disks consists of a typical 5 ¼-inch floppy disk that can hold 360Kb or 1.2MB. However 3 ½-inches normally store 720Kb, 1.2MB or 1.44MB of data. Webopedia. (2012). The Hard disk is the most common secondary data as they are used in almost every computer system as they provide A LOT of data for the operating system, files, music and games that you want to store on the machine. Hard disks can store from 20MB to more than 200GB. Hard disks are also 10 to 100 times faster than floppy disks. Webopedia. (2012). Removable cartridge hard disks encased in a metal or plastic cartridge, so you can remove them just like a floppy disk. Removable cartridges are very fast, though usually not as fast as fixed hard disks. Optical disks Optical disks record data by burning microscopic holes in the surface of the disk with a laser. To read the disk, another laser beam shines on the disk and detects the holes by changes in the reflection pattern. Webopedia. (2012). CD-ROM : Most optical disks are read-only. When you purchase them, they are already filled with data. You can read the data from a CD-ROM, but you cannot modify, delete, or write new data. Webopedia. (2012). Input and Output elements The input and output devices are another important part for a computer system. Devices you use will depend on what kind of data needs to be inputted onto the machine then a output will be produced of the results. This certain output can be displayed via a computer screen, printed page, and even the audio. Input and output elements can be either for the user or network. Below are some of the main input elements for the user Keyboard A keyboard is one of the most common parts of a computer system that is used to enter text into the computer and display it to the screen. The keyboard can also be used to type commands, such as an on-screen menu using a mouse. Plus most keyboards these days are not just used for typing text, but also most now have numeric keypad, editing keys and a row of function keys along the top. UNM-LA. (2004). Mouse A mouse is by far the most common pointing input device for computers. With the working mechanics of a ball on its underside that rolls on a flat surface causes the pointer on the screen to move. The mouse allows you to reposition the pointer on the screen that shows where the next interaction with the computer can take place. The cursor can also be moved by pressing different keyboard keys. N/A. (N/A). Scanners Scanners are special devices that copy images from a hardcopy source and then copys it to the screen making a digital copy. It works by the image being converted to numerically and sent to the computer for very colour weather it is light or dark. Scanners normally scan graphic pages however they can be used to scan text pages using the OCR or Optical Character Recognition. UNM-LA. (2004). Types of Screens Cathode ray tube or CRT monitors display text and graphics are some of the most common used today. Another type of screen flat panel display usually uses an LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen to display output from the computer. A flat display often seen on watches and calculators. LCD screens are used on laptop computers. Some LCDs are monochrome, but colour screens are popular. Some laptop screens are nearing CRTs in resolution quality. N/A. (N/A). Trackball Trackballs are like a mouse variation that is used to play video games. The trackball is basically an upside-down mouse-you roll the ball directly with your hand. N/A. (N/A) Below are some of the main output elements for the user Printers Today the most common printer would have to be ink jet printer as they produce for hardcopy output. These printers print a on the page by spraying ink to the page. However these printers need a lot of ink. Also a common printer is laser printers. These printers produce some of the best kind of image quality. NM-LA. (2004). Speakers Computers Speakers produce output via sound also, from very basic beeps, to some of the best sounds via game sound effects or music. Basic sounds may be on the motherboard, but high quality audio are from speakers that output from a PC which can be inserted to in a expansion slot,. UNM-LA. (2004). Networking inputs and outputs Modems Modems use data communications via a dial-up or broadband connection that allows computers to exchange data. The normal telephone modem offers communication rates from 300-56000bps. For a modem, it contains two different types of translators. The first is the Modulator which transmits digital signals out down the phone line in analogue form. While the demodulator receives analogue signals from the phone line and converts them back into digital form. Rob Williams (2006) Hub A hub is one of the most basic networking devices, which can connect ma number of computers or network devices together. Unlike a network router, network hubs have no routing tables where they can send information and broadcasts. Most hubs can detect basic network problems such as collisions, however if there is multiple ports being used, the risk of security risks can increase. With hubs, they serve as central connection points for local area networks (LANs). Also there are not just box hubs, but USB ones as well. Computer Hope. (2012) Support Elements Support elements for a computer are to help the computer system. This can be classed as performance aiding such as increasing the computers performance, elements such as making the computer not suffer from a system failure due to overheating and even elements that help support the whole computer by keeping it protected or helping it work. 1. The use of support elements below are elements that transfer information between components Buses A system bus is a special set of physical connections such as cables, which are shared by multiple hardware components in order to communicate with each other The purpose of system buses is to reduce the number of pathways that are needed for communication between computers components, by carrying out all communications over a single data channel. Below is a diagram of a bus and it shows how a simple bus change can be put into place to make the flow of data simple and not complex., compared to the one on the left. . (Kioskea.net. (n/a)) schematic diagram of a bus A system bus is sorted by the amount of information that is transmitted, which is shown in bits. For example a 32-wire ribbon cable can transmit 32 bits in parallel. While the speed of the bus speed is called frequency and shown as Hertz which is the number of data packets sent or received per second. This is known as a cycle. (Kioskea.net. (n/a)) System Buses are split up into three distinct groups. They are Data, Address and Control. Data buses are normally 32 bits wide but can be increased to bits of 64 Address buses are 32 bits but will require more space soon Control bus- about 15 lines responsible for starting and stopping activities (Rob Williams( 2006)(p56-59) Fiber Cable Fiber optic cable are cables that are made of a very clear glass tube that transmits light to and from a system. Light will travel down the tube in a straight line. The light jumps off of the mirrors in the wire and is directed back into the fiber optic core to continue its journey along the cable. Michelle Miley. (1999). The next type of support elements are to put power in and take excess power out The power supply is hands down the most vital part of any computer system. The power supply converts the AC or alternating current from your home to the direct current or DC. In a PC or personal computer, the power supply is a large metal box usually found in a corner of the case with or next to the fans. The power supply is visible from the back as it contains the power-cord receptacle and the cooling fan. Gary Brown. (1998). Fans One of the main components in a compute is a fan. An example of this can be found in the CPU as there is a CPU fan. Fans are one of the most effective ways to cool down the computers processor and protect the computer from overheating and damaging the system. The CPU fan actively cools the processor by bringing in cooler air. Also cooling fans are available in a many of sizes. The CPUs cooling fans are attached directly to the top of the CPU, and works together with an aluminium heat sink fan. They cool down the CPU and reduce the amount of hot air from circulating around in the computer case. Heat sink An aluminium heat sink fan is a cooling device that draws heat away from the computers components into its large surface area to transfer cooler. This cooling device works at the same time as everything else in the computer. NMB. (2010). The next types are support elements to hold and support the components The Case The computer case can be the aluminum, steel and/or plastic shell that protects all of the computers components. Computer Cases are built to support a certain sets of hardware, in other words not all motherboards, optical drives or other hardware may be compatible with a particular computer case as the size maybe incompatible. Some computer cases come with power supplies or other essential hardware preinstalled. Motherboard A motherboard holds all the main elements of the computer or laptop together. Located on the motherboard, the CPU must be matched a slot in the motherboard so that it may fit into the motherboards sockets. The Motherboard allows the communication of electrical signals to pass through the computer. Without it the computer would be nothing more than an empty shell. Conclusion In conclusion, this report has cover the main attributes of computer hardware being the processor, memory, Input and output elements and support elements. The processor is the brain of the computer and the CPU or central processing unit is the main type of processor in front of the microprocessor and the CPU uses the fetch-execute cycle. While memory covered primary and secondary. Primary being main memory accessed by the CPU and examples are RAM, ROM, Registers and cache. Secondary is stored information, and examples are Optical and Magnetic. While Input/output elements include Keyboards, mouses, screens, printers (user) and Modems and HUBs (network). Also support elements are system buses, cables, power supplies, cases and motherboards that help the performance of the machine.

A Study of Joe Christmas in Faulkners Light in August Essay -- Light

A Study of Joe Christmas in Light in August      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Joe Christmas's eating disorder and antipathy to women's sexuality (or to the feminine) in Light in August also can be traced back to the primal scene in the dietitian's room.   However, the primal scene is not the final piece of the puzzle in the novel.   The primal scene is already given as a working condition for a further analysis of Joe's psychology.   Readers are first invited to interrelate the scene and Joe's behavior in the rest of the novel.1   Yet drawing one-to-one relations between the primal scene and Joe's symptomatic behavior merely repeats Freud's theory for its own sake.   The mechanic connection of the dots does not solve the most crucial problem of the novel, Joe's racial identity.   The primal scene, like a dream, asks for a further inspection of its undersurface - something distorted or untold.   It also urges to expand the Freudian perception of the unconscious.   The unconscious is not just a personal trashcan of one's own repressed sexual energy.   As Joe Christmas's case proves, the unconscious is always already cultural and social.   The unconscious is multiple and full of others.  Ã‚   Focusing on the primal scene, this essay shall explore Joe Christmas's psychology and the problematics of his racial identity.      The above excerpt is provided to allow the student a better understanding of the focus of the paper. The complete paper begins below:         Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   We witness Freud's reductive glee; we literally see multiplicity leave the wolves to take the shape of goats that have absolutely nothing to do with the story.   Seven wolves that are only kid-goats.   Six wolves: the seventh goat (the Wolf-Man himself) is hiding in the clock.   Five wolves: h... ...ginally published as Mille Plateaux, volume 2 of Capitalisme et Schizophrà ©nie by Minuit in 1980 in France. Faulkner, William. Light in August.   New York: Vintage, 1990. Originally published in 1932. Karl, Frederick R.   William Faulkner: American Writer.   New York: Ballantine Books, 1989.    Notes   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   1   Joe's symptoms of anorexia nervosa, his dislike to objects, which remind of women's genitalia, and his disgust at anything or anyone with feminine faculties are closely interconnected to the primal scene.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   2 It is interesting that psychic determinism in Joe's case opposes to Gavin Stevens's theory of black blood and white blood.   While the former attributes Joe's symptoms to "nurture," Stevens's essentializing blood theory attributes to "nature."   The conflict between "nature" and "nurture" has become an important American theme.

The European Monetary Union (EMU) - The Euro as a Single Currency Essay

The European Monetary Union (EMU) - The Euro as a Single Currency Liberalizing trade is nothing new to the world, but we have never witnessed such a vast economic integration between sovereign countries like the integration carried out in the European Union. Customs duties between European countries started to come down steadily in the early 1950s and were abolished in 1968 with the introduction of a customs union and the implementation of the common external tariff. The official proclamation of the single market on 1 January 1993 marked the ending of non-tariff barriers to trade between Member States. European Monetary Union will make it possible to complete European economic integration. The introduction of a single currency will mean price transparency, that is prices of goods can be directly compared on the markets of the participating Member States, which will merge into one market. Obstacles to trade such as the transaction costs, which add up to 0.4% of the EU GDP per year, and the exchange risk, will be eliminated. The competitive positions of companies can no longer be established by exchange-rate movements but will reflect productivity, inflation and cost differentials. This should permit a better allocation of capital and of available resources. The member countries will also be able to save administrative costs used for hedging operations. Over and above its positive effects on price stability and public finances, the single currency will make it possible to complete the single market and increase the benefits, which have already flowed from it. Monetary Union will create an area within which national financial markets will become an integrated, wider and more flexible market. Financial institutions and financial centers will face new competitive conditions. The size of a specific national market will lose its significance. Competition will increase and could lead to greater harmonization across the euro area. The introduction of the euro will have a great impact on the financial sector. This is because of three main reasons: Â · The European System of Central Banks will be operating the single monetary policy in euro. So, it will be necessary for financial institutions to be able to operate in euro. Â · Governments will issue all new debt in euro. Therefore, financial institutions, payment systems and clearing ... ...ch the problems associated with the changeover to the euro will be resolved. Second, the national currencies of the EMU members are no longer independent. They are fixed to the euro. A speculation between currencies of the member states is pointless because this is equal to speculation with a currency of the same type. The introduction of the euro in 1999 was an event, anticipated for a long time. Following, the euro has faced some problems due to the transaction period, but there is a strong belief that these problems will be easily overcome as the young currency accumulates power. Now that, the euro has become the official currency of the European Union (with some exceptions) there will be no more national currencies of the member states. In this way, we become witnesses of the highest level of integration among independent nations in the world history, when the European Union is expected to become the leader in the world economy. Bibliography: 1. Kreinin, International Economics, 1991, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich 2. Cecchini, The European Challenge, 1992, Wildwood House 3. European Central Bank’s web site: http://www.ecb.int 4. EMU official web site: http://www.emu.int